Project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Project - Research Paper Example Time management techniques provide a way to people to get more work done with more efficiency, less mistakes and more accurately. Proper time management helps people save time for their other activities, strong and better relationship, more satisfactory family life and feel less tensed and stressfulness because of workload. These techniques include the following: The first and foremost step in managing time is to be focused. It is not possible to reach your destination without focusing on the way that will lead you to that particular place. A person knowing his target must know about the procedures that may help him in achieving those targets. There are certain techniques that help individuals in keeping their focus on a particular target without distracting their thoughts and actions because of other goals and plans. The first step that may be helpful is to keep the track of things in writing. A person cannot memorize all the necessary stuff, it is always better to write down the vision, goals, assignments, projects, appointments and important occasions. This is the first step in time management as it allows the individual to keep a track of the things which are required to be incorporated in the plans. This also helps the individual to focus on one task at a time and move on to the next one once it is completed. The next step is to identif y which task worth the time you have. In order to manage the time properly, an individual must identify the unnecessary activities which are resulting in the wastage of time. Time is a limiting factor in our lives; hence it must not be wasted but utilized. Moreover, in order to be focused a person must have a strong vision on the outcome of his efforts. This vision of the completed picture of his goal motivates him on putting his best efforts and staying away from the unnecessary and unfruitful activities of his life. People waste a lot of time because of less of no planning. There has to be a balance between family

Zeitgeist Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Zeitgeist - Movie Review Example The first part of the movie was more or less based on the birth of Jesus Chris, stating that he wasn’t infact born on this date. Here again, the director has to prove the fact that the birth date of Jesus Christ is not actually the 25th of December and that it should be in the season of winter solstice but the director has yet again avoided the theories which point otherwise. The next topic being discussed in the video is regarding the cross. The director claims that the cross is actually the symbol of the zodiac and is persistent on proving that the symbol is somewhat astrological by origin. The author has done this by discussing the myths. But it could be easily said that the cross has no relation whatsoever from astrological point of view rather it is used because Jesus Christ was crucified on the cross because crucifixion was the conventional method of punishing someone by law. Similar things can be said about the claim the author makes regarding the crown of thorns. The author also makes claim that the Bible is not actually a work of God and the stories of various prophets such as Noah, Moses mentioned in the Bible are actually again similar to other stories of the past. But the one thing that is problematic here is if the director is trying to prove wrong of the Bible why he is not trying to prove the reliability of the stories which he mentions in order to contradict the teachings of the Bible. The author also says that Horus was the God of the sun in Egypt, this shows that the author has a lack of understanding regarding the topic being discussed and he needs to do research regarding them. Every one, particularly Egyptians know that Horus was infact the God of the sky and Ra was the Sun God. This is one of the many examples which show the baseless facts that the director has mentioned in the entire video. The main conclusion that can be drawn from this video is that the religion, especially Christianity is the basis of

E-Recruiting Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

E-Recruiting - Term Paper Example I hope to gain more knowledge on improved techniques that can be used in organizations to get potential employees more easily using the Internet resources. This knowledge will also enhance an individual’s knowledge about technological advancement. E-Recruitment analysis E-recruiting is the process by which personnel are recruited by using electronic resources and in particular the Internet (Watson, 2008). Most recruitment agents and companies have relocated most of their recruitment processes online in order to enhance the speed at which potential candidates can match live vacancies. Online recruiting systems are time-saving to the employer since they can easily rate their e-candidate and also several other people in the human resource department can review these candidates (Gary, 2005). The database technologies used in this program in conjunction with worthy search engines that advertise online jobs enable candidates to fill posts in a remarkably short period. In the ninetee nth century, recruitment was centrally based on an apprenticeship methodology. Organizations had apprentices who were not employees in the organization and after completion of the apprenticeship they were given jobs in the company. Comparison between the apprentices and skilled candidates proves that the skilled candidates are considered more desirable since they have the necessary qualifications pertaining to the job vacancy. With the needed employee data in the Human Resource Information System databases, Human Resource executives are free to pursue creative thinking and critical projects. This technology uses the power of online CV search technology to search resume databases and aid employers together with the human resource personnel actively search for valid candidates... This essay stresses that the Human Resource department is truly changing the operational phenomena in organizations that have adapted this change. The Human Resource Management System will ensure that employee’s data is managed effortlessly. The use of this system also reduces data-entry errors which are common in the traditional recruitment methods. In a considerate view, the paper-based processes detain about 80% of the information whereas the software system can detain all the data. The optimizing of the Human Resource management software system requires identification and investing in the right system to suit the business’s demands. One can also examine the technological, cultural and economic parameters. The communication factor also affects the competitive nature of the company by either increasing or decreasing it depending on the organization’s productivity. Employee satisfaction is also impacted by the financial capability of the employer. This also affe cts the health requirements and wellness of the employee in several ways. This article makes a concluiosn that nowadays, Human Resource managers are channeling their attention in motivation, policies, relations and quality consciousness in conjunction with E-Recruitment. Lastly, there are other future advocated models like Triple I, Federal and Shamrock that have been proposed by HR professionals including the likes of Charles Handy among others. These are the future organizational models to be used in the future of E-Recruitment.

Steroids Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Steroids - Essay Example In terms of the categories, ergogenic aids can be seen as distributed in terms of mechanical aids, pharmacological aids, physiological aids, nutritional aids and psychological aids (Sports Coach, 1997). All of these categories actually illustrate the fact that the ergogenic aids can be specifically tailored in view of the particular aspect of the being that needs to be enhanced. The most commonly used ergogenic supplements are protein supplements, energy boosters, weight loss agents and anabolic agents etc (Bonci, 2010). It is this category of anabolic agents in which the stubject matter of steroids falls. Steroids constitute two categories namely anabolic and corticosteroids (Dowshen, 2010). Anabolic steroids are the synthetic derivatives of testosterone and are synthetic hormones that boost the muscle production in the body and their strength. While the corticosteroids are drugs that doctors specifically prescribe to control inflammation (Dowshen, 2010). The usage of such steroids is mostly for the purpose of enhancing one’s abilities in the strength dependent sports. Anabolic steroids are the ones that trigger the release of the endogenous growth hormone and induce protein synthesis in the muscle cells whose psychological influence can enhance a more intense and sustained workout. While the complete effectiveness of them in enhancing strength and other factors that influence their effects still have some ambiguity in terms of understanding and cannot even be seen in a proper documented form. The effects of such steroids have not yet been determined correctly with full consensus based on the differences in the approaches being taken for their usage (Mac & Silver, 2001). With the advent of steroids as energy boosters in the sports category, there has always been a question of their effectiveness in terms of athletic

The Waiting Years Essay Example for Free

The Waiting Years Essay The passage from the â€Å"The Waiting Years† reveals a bleak look into the earlier years of Shirakawa, who had worked as a government official. It also reveals dedication of moving from moving from one assignment to another and how difficult that time period must have been for the family. When we hear about the winter months, and how Shirakawa’s mother died, we understand what a hardship the winter months must have been for them, and get a direct link between feelings of guilt on Shirakawas’s part, from the quote and his mother’s passing but we also learn the importance of work and family loyalty. The family crest description offers a deep respect for the family members when the author describes the shrine, concealed in a black lacquer safe, emblazoned with the family crest in gold and it demonstrates a wonderful respect for the family member who had earlier passed on, when the passage speaks about the custom. Tomo acted in a very responsible manner, and it seemed that she had no other choice, but to keep a keen eye on the family property and she was going to do so and hear what she need to know with her own ears. Tomo had taken on the custom of dealing with all business matters concerning the rent on the houses and the land in this Buddhist retreat, tuck away at the back of the house. We also learn that there was more land that belonged to the family, and they had an acre or so each, which brought in a lot of money for the family and we understand that she had to watch out for those who defaulted on the property .

Colgate pursues low cost strategy

Colgate pursues low cost strategy CP has a large and efficient distribution network. Its distribution channels are located all over Pakistan (Moore, E.R) It caters to a broad customer base. It has developed itself in almost all the categories which are associated with customers on the daily basis. Colgate pursues low cost strategy. Its plant is automated. Only one plant is used for the manufacturing of three different detergents like bonus, express, brite The whole process is repeated for each of the detergent. By automating the plant, CP is able to save a lot of cost. CP value delivery network does not have any delays in it which helps CP to save cost. CP targets all segment, it has products for the lower class, middle class and the upper class. Its pricing is done accordingly. It has cost leadership in the detergent and the surface care category CP forecasting is very accurate which helps them to reduce cost because if estimated are accurate then it helps the company to avail cost advantages CP is allowed to deviate only 5% from its forecast both upwards and downwards CP has concentrated more on process efficiencies CP has access to large capital that is required to make significant investment. CP never compromises on the development expenditure. It is always ready to improve its production processes. Being a low cost producer it helps CP to better compete to its rivals. Being the low cost producer it has helped CP to insulate themselves from powerful suppliers who nowadays demand increasing prices due to rising inflation. Being he low cost producer, it has also helped to attract powerful buyers whom CP sells directly like MAKRO, DMART, IMITAZ, AGHAS, and NAHEED etc (Moore, E.R). Economic Factor The overall economy of the country is showing a stable growth. Therefore this industry is also showing a growth of 10%. But the inflation is growing rapidly which is not a good sign for the new entrants. Change in the interest rate also affects the industry. Hence the new entrants are also threatened by the increasing interest rates. Economic factors do influence the bargaining power of buyers as inflation is the major factor that is affecting the consumers hard. Economic factors do not affect the availability of substitutes. But since inflation is growing, so it is hard for the poor people to switch to more modern products like washing powder, tooth paste. They would rather prefer oil to clean their clothes and use miswak to brush their teeth. Economic factors do have an affect on the bargaining power of suppliers as inflation is rising fast. Suppliers demand that they would provide the necessary raw material at a higher price. Exchange rate fluctuations also affect the cost of raw material. Economic factors do affect the rivalry among the competitors as all the players in the industry want to have cost leadership. The economic factors are favoring intense competition from the last five years. People have more money at their disposal. Also Pakistan is a consumption oriented society (Hiatt, Jeff.). Quantitative Strategic Planning Matrix (QSPM) STRATEGY 1 STRATEGY 2 Weights AS TAS AS TAS STRENGTHS Market leader in surface care with 90% market share 0.15 Good Leadership 0.06 Employee commitment 0.12 3 0.36 2 0.24 Cooling crystal patent 0.1 Accurate forecast with respect to demand 0.07 4 0.28 2 0.14 High EPS 0.08 3 0.24 2 0.16 Strong advertisement and promotional campaign 0.08 2 0.16 3 0.24 WEAKNESSES IT not used optimally 0.13 4 0.52 2 0.26 No ecommerce 0.1 3 0.3 2 0.26 No proper use of forward integration 0.05 2 0.1 3 0.15 They are not exporting their products to other countries 0.06 1 OPPORTUNITIES Exploring into new categories like shampoo, hand wash , body wash, shower gel 0.14 2 0.28 4 0.56 Rural population switching from miswak to toothpaste 0.06 Gap in tooth brush market 0.08 2 0.16 3 0.24 Implementation of ERP(SAP) 0.14 4 0.56 2 0.28 People becoming hygiene and beauty conscious 0.1 2 0.2 3 0.3 No layoffs 0.07 THREATS(T) Raw material and energy prices are increasing 0.12 3 0.36 2 0.24 Inflation in the country 0.07 3 0.21 2 0.14 Competitors re launching their products 0.1 2 0.2 3 0.3 Competitors increasing their marketing budgets 0.06 2 0.12 3 0.18 Unstable law and order conditions. 0.06 1 TOTAL 4.05 3.69 Rivalry among existing competitors Yes (+) No (-) The industry is growing rapidly. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ The industry is not cyclical with intermittent overcapacity. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ The fixed costs of the business are relatively low portion of total costs. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ There are significant product differences and brand identities between the competitors. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ The competitors are diversified rather than specialized. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ It would not be hard to get out of this business because there are no specialized skills and facilities or long-term contract commitments etc. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ My customers would incur significant costs in switching to a competitor. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ My product is complex and requires a detailed understanding on the part of my customer. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ My competitors are all of approximately the same size as I am. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ 7 LOW MEDIUM HIGH INTERPRETATION: Threat of competitors is high because the product is not unique as there are no product differences. Same products are available with all competitors like Unilever, Procter and Gamble, Shield, Oral B. Therefore rivalry is also increasing as demand in the economy has also increased for the last 5 to years. Majority of the competitors are MNCs which means that they have the necessary resource and skill (Hiatt, Jeff). Government Factors: Government regulations do have an affect on the rivalry among the competitors. Political factors: Political factors do not affect the rivalry among the competitors Economic factors Economic factors do affect the rivalry among the competitors as all the players in the industry want to have cost leadership. The economic factors are favoring intense competition from the last five years. People have more money at their disposal. Also Pakistan is a consumption oriented society (Hiatt, Jeff). Social trends Social trends have changed, buyer are more aware of their purchases. So the players in the industry are always trying hard to increase their market share (Hiatt, Jeff). Technological change Technology is helping the companies to gain a competitive advantage over their rivals. Also research and development plays an important role in this (Hiatt, Jeff). KEY SUCCESS ACTORS FOR COMPETIVE SUCCESS Low cost production efficiency. CP has plants installed that take only 30 minutes for the plant to shift from the production of one product to the other. High quality manufacturing of products with very few defects. A strong network of wholesale distributors. Gaining ample space on retailer shelves. (Examples Naheed, Aghas, Makro and other small shops.) Attractive packaging and styling. Good length of product lines. Attractive commercials and advertising. Good reputation in the industry along with favorable reputation with buyers. Market penetration Colgate can do market penetration by increasing its advertising, people always associate Colgate with tooth paste and have no awareness that it produces personal and surface care products as well. They should show their logo on all its products so that people know the producers and this will increase customer loyalty and also when people will come to know that Colgate is the producer then new customers will also buy the product (Hiatt, Jeff). They should also increase their promotion efforts by going to school and doing health awareness programs, also they should go to residential areas and make women aware of their surface care and fabric care products such as max, bonus and express etc Product development: Colgate can also do product development by introducing new features in their already existing brands. They can improve their tooth brush quality and features by introducing flexi tooth brushes for special oral care. Also they can introduce whitening features in their feature in their tooth paste; different colors of tooth paste can also be introduced to attract the kinds market. In their fabric care they can introduce in special features of protecting the color of the cloth while washing and also whitening enhancing surfs to give a good shine to while clothes (Hiatt, Jeff). develop systems to involve appropriate stakeholders in the introduction of change SIX THINGS REQUIRED TO EFFECTIVELY IMPLEMENTING A STRATEGY According to Porter, to implement a strategy effectively six things should be followed: Create a formal plan: Distributor Quantity Item Price Negotiation, Inventory Reporting, Stock Details, Payment Terms HR Module Inventory / Store Sales Module Sales Module Stock Details Quantity item Price negotiation, inventory reporting, ex stock details, payment terms Finance Module Credit terms, payment procedures, Stock in out effect Inflow outflow of raw materials Procurement Module Create a multifunctional team: To effectively implement ERP, Colgate must first hire an independent resource firm. Acquire licensing for SAP Implementation. Establish an independent IT unit for the monitoring of ERP. This department will coordinate with all the other departments (Robbins S, Mukerji). Communication of strategy: inside and outside: All employees in the company should be made aware of the new automated system. Each employee must be provided a minimal insight of SAP but those employees who have to work on SAP the most should ofcourse be provided with proper training course of SAP. These include: Factory Manager Manager accounts Warehouse Manager Distribution team Consumer insight department Outside the company the strategy to implement ERP should be communicated properly to all the local and foreign suppliers of Colgate Palmolive (Hagberg). Consistency over time: As Information Technology is progressing day by day, new changes in ERP are expected after certain time periods. Therefore it would become very important for Colgate to cope up with the changes in the software. For this purpose it would need to update it employees by providing training whenever any change takes place in SAP (Hagberg). Use proper measurements: Other measures, not just financial measures would be required to test whether the system is working properly. These measures include: Whether the system is accurately forecasting demand, sales, price changes Whether or not there are any deviations in the actual versus projected sales Effectiveness of the internal processes after the strategy implementation (Robbins S, Mukerji). Test the strategy: Ask employees and senior management in all departments whether they are satisfied with the new system of working. Talk to suppliers and distributors whether they want any more improvements in the new system of working (Hagberg). EIGHT PILLARS OF STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION Allocating resources: Colgate has to invest around 50mn for which they have to make a separate IT department in which 1 trained personnel have to be hired so that it can be implemented in an efficient way. building capable organizaion: After the implementation of SAP, a capable organization would be established. It would help the company to coordinate all activities. CP can then expand into new markets and would develop innovative products. Exercising strategic leadership: SAP implementation will require an annual strategic audit to check whether the desired objectives have been achieved or not. This means a visionary leadership is required. Leadership should be exercised strategically in such a way that it helps the company to maintain its competitive advantage. Tying rewards: Rewards in maintaining the best MIS, highest no of transactions, successful employee in training face should be given in terms of recognition, increased in salary and gift vouchers. Installing support system: It is important to maintain MIS with in different department so they can work in a best possible way Benchmarking: In Pakistan very few organizations has implemented SAP. PSO and National Foods are some of them. Since PSO has very successfully implemented SAP so Colgate benchmarks them. Strategic supportive policies: They have to make strategies in which maintaining an MIS should be mandatory. There should be digital culture. They should have a centralize data base through which all department are interlinked and any transaction can be tracked down by any department. Every department should have access to only relevant information. Shaping corporate culture: Colgate should implement paperless. Digital culture where the records must be maintained through MIS and not manually .even communication should be done electronically. KEY DRIVING FORCES Industry growth: Now most of the people have knowledge about the different products and its advantages. The intense competition in industry and high demand enables the new entrants to compete in this market (Hagberg). Product innovation: Innovation in product, as Colgate has just introduced Max fresh in which the coolant crystals are present which none of the competitors has adopted yet. There is also room in innovation in washing detergents (Hagberg). Changing societal concerns, attitudes and lifestyle: Since social issues are really effecting the use of product just like the use of Miswak which is the Islamic mode of cleaning the teeth (Hagberg). Use of E-commerce and Internet: Usage of online ordering and maintaining the stock level through e-commerce can be driving force in the industry. By using that they can provide products to customer which is value addition for them (Hagberg). This report is purely based on the finding from the Colgate expert and the secondary data analysis, and the reason for writing the whole report is to find the obstacle / hindrance a business men face and how the organization can minimize it through implementing the different strategies and analysis. The whole report research draws attention to  the fact that any problem can be eliminate if proper investigation and consideration can be observed the success is easy to get, Pakistan market is mature market and the competition is tough here because most of the customer is price conscious and act like butterflies, so targeting this kind of customer is quite difficult, but on the other hand it can be managed if the you can understand the market effectively and efficiently (Robbins S, Mukerji). Hiatt, Jeff. The definition and history of change management. http://www.change-management.com/tutorial-definition-history.htm. Filicetti, John (August 20, 2007). Project Management Dictionary Moore, E.R., (accessed 1 April, 2001), Creating Organizational Cultures: An Ethnographic Study, Eastern Academy of Management Virtual Proceedings, Moore, E.R., (accessed 1 April, 2001), Creating Organizational Cultures: An Ethnographic Study, Eastern Academy of Management Virtual Proceedings, , R. Ph.D. Heifetz, D.Ph., 2000 (accessed 4 April, 2001), Corporate Hagberg Culture/Organisational Culture: UnderJerryding and Assessment, Robbins S, Mukerji D (1994). Managing organisations. Prentice Hall of Australia, McPhersons Printing Group, Australia. Sergiovanni, T.J. (1984) Educational Leadership, Leadership and excellence in schooling, Volume 41, Number 5, United States of America, page 4-13 Kent State University 2000 (accessed 28th March, 2001), Kent State University Cultural Self-Study Internal Communication of Change By Dagmar Recklies Circling the Pyramid Building Lasting Commitment to Change  Ã‚   (pdf-file) by Edmond Mellina What Makes a Good Change Agent? by Dagmar Recklies The Role of the Change Master From Change Agent to Change Master By Ruth Tearle Managing Change Definition and Phases in Change Processes by Oliver Recklies Problems in Managing Change by Oliver Recklies AuditNet.org provides a downloadable PDF of change management best practices. Fred Nickols wrote Change Management 101: A Primer. SearchCRM.com provides resources on handling change management following a CRM upgrade. Neglecting your change control process can kill an IT disaster recovery plan.

Management Of Variations In Construction Management Construction Essay

Management Of Variations In Construction Management Construction Essay Management of Variations could be counted as one of the most significant challenges in construction management. The nature and amount of Variations occurrence varies from one project to another depending on various factor (CII, 1986; Kaming, Olomloaiye, Holt Harris, 1997). Arain and Low (2005a) identified the design phase as the most likely area on to focus to reduce the number of Variations. The newsletter Law Talk by McKays Solicitors discussed that Contractors inability to successfully pursue variations claims, is one of the main factors contributing to business bankruptcy in the industry. One way to reduce Variations on site is to begin with is to focusing on what and how does the project team can help in minimizing the problems during the design phase (Arain, 2005). Variations changing the design or the specifications usually have a time impact and a cost impact. It is for this reason that the construction drawings and specification should be prepared with great care and precision. The less ambiguity in terms of design documentation, then lower the potential for Variations (Stuart Miller, 2009). This chapter focuses on the definition and nature of Variations. The causes and impacts which the Variations influence from the pre-construction stage until the construction stage will be identified. Definition A construction contract is an agreement to build and can be subjected to variability. Contractual provisions relating to changes allow certain parties involved in the Contract to initiate variation orders within the ambit of and without vitiating the Contract. There is no single explanation for the word variation. Variation in layman terms means changes, alteration or modifications. Each standard form of building contract has its own definition for Variation. In PAM 2006 (Clause 11.1) Variation means the alteration of modification of the design, quality or quantity of the Works. A Variation can be any, a combination of any of the following: Variation in building projects may mean the alteration of modification of the design quality or quality of the Works in the Contract drawings and described by the Contract Bill of Quantities and includes the addition, omission or substitution of any work (Clause 11.1 (a) ), the alteration of the kind of standard of any of the material as goods to be used in the Works (Clause 11.1 (b) ), and the removal from site of any work executed or material and good brought thereon by the Contractor for the purpose of the Works other than work, material and goods which are not in accordance with the contract (Clause 11.1 (d) ). Variation in building projects together related with instruction of expenditure of provisional sums, prime cost sums and instruction related the nature of Works are a Variation in the contract documents. Variation of contract in law, are variation of the contract terms condition. Example: both parties alter the original contract document by agreement after execution of the original contract. Variation of price clause which enables the sum to be adjusted for increase or reduction in the cost of labour or materials. Variations are directly attributed to matter not being stated or as required in the contract documents. This occurs either because circumstances actually changes or because circumstances upon which the contract documents based were misinterpreted. The former is matters which can easily appreciated and comprehend. Nevertheless, it still has two distinct aspects. Firstly, circumstances may change in such a way, which can have no control, that the documentation can now be seen to be defective. Alternatively, circumstances may require that the client determines a choice of action, with the resulting choice of creating a Variation. Most standard forms of contract include a clause under which the employer or his representative is able to issue an instruction to the contractor to vary the works which are described in the contract. A change in shape of the scheme, the introduction of different materials, revised timing and sequence are all usually provided for by the variations clause. It will also usually include a mechanism for evaluating the financial effect of the variation and there is normally provision for adjusting the completion date. In the absence of such a clause the employer could be in a difficulty should a variation to the works be required. The contractor could both refuse to carry out the work or undertake the work and insist upon payment on a quantum meruit or fair valuation basis. Calculation of the price for the extra work applying this method could involve payment well in excess of the contract rates. Potential Causes of Variation Literature reviews that of Variations and Variation Orders requires a comprehensive understanding of the root causes of Variations (Hester et al., 1991).Variations some of which are financial, design aesthetics, changes in drawings, weather, geological and geotechnical reasons. From the literature review, there were 53 causes of Variations identified and these Variations are mainly caused by the Employer, Consultants and Contractors. As shown in Figure 1, these causes of Variations were grouped under four categories: Employer related Variations, Consultants related Variations, Contractor related Variations and other Variations. These Causes of Variations have been identified by many researchers (CII, 1990a; Thomas and Napolitan, 1994; Clough and Sears, 1994; Fisk, 1997; Ibbs et al., 1998; OBrien, 1998; Mokhtar et al., 2000; Gray and Hughes, 2001; Arain et al., 2004). The causes of Variations can be categorized according to the originators (CII, 1990a; Thomas and Napolitan, 1994). The 53 causes identified from the literature review are also discussed below. Causes of Variations Employer related Variations Consultants related Variations Contractors related Variations Change of plans or scope by Employer Change in design by Consultants Lack of Contractors involvement in design Change of schedule by Employer Errors and omissions in design Unavailability of equipment Employers financial problem Conflict between contract documents Unavailability of skills Inadequate project objective Inadequate scope of work for contractor Contractors financial difficulties Replacement of materials/procedure Technology change Contractors desired profitability Impediment in prompt decision making process Value engineering Differing site conditions Obstinate nature of Employer Lack of coordination Defective workmanship Change in specifications by Employer Design complexity Unfamiliarity with local conditions Inadequate working drawing details Lack of specialized construction manager Inadequate shop drawing details Fast track construction Consultant lack of judgment and experience Poor procurement process Lack of consultants knowledge of available materials and equipment Lack of communication Honest wrong belief of consultant Contractors lack of judgement experience Consultants lack of required data Long lead procurement Obstinate nature of consultant Honest wrong belief of contractor Ambiguous design details Complex design and technology Design discrepancies (inadequate design) Lack of strategic planning Non-compliance design with govt. regulation Contractors lack of required data Non-compliance design with owners requirement Contractors obstinate nature Change in specifications by Consultant Figure 1: Causes of Variation grouped under four categories A. Employer Related Changes This section discusses the causes of Variations that were initiated by the Employer. In some cases, the Employer directly initiates Variations or the Variations are required because the Employer fails to fulfil certain requirements for carrying out the project. Change of plans or scope by Employer: Change of plan or scope of project is one of the most significant causes of Variations in construction projects (CII, 1990b) and is usually the result of insufficient planning at the project planning stage, or also i can because of lack of involvement of the Employer in the design phase (Arain et al., 2004). This cause the Variations affects the project severely during the later phases. Change of schedule by Employer: A change of schedule or master programme during the project construction phase may result in major resource reallocation (Fisk, 1997; OBrien, 1998). This is because time has an equivalent money value. A change in schedule means that the Contractor will either provide additional resources, or keep some resources idle in the construction site. In both cases additional cost is incurred. Employers financial problems: The Employer of the project may run into difficult financial situations that force him to make changes in an attempt to reduce cost of the project. Employers financial problems affect project progress and quality (Clough and Sears, 1994; OBrien, 1998). Proper financial planning and review of project cash flow would be effective in avoid this problem to from happening. Inadequate project objectives: Inadequate project objectives are one of the causes of Variations in construction projects (Ibbs and Allen, 1995). Due to inadequate project objectives, the designers would not be able to develop a comprehensive design which leads to many of Variations during the project construction phase. Replacement of materials or procedures: Replacement of materials or procedures may cause major Variations during the construction phase. The substitution of procedures includes Variations in application methods (Chappell and Willis, 1996). Therefore, an adjustment to the original contract value is required if there is a change in procedures. Impediment in prompt decision making process: Prompt decision making is an important factor for project success (Sanvido et al., 1992; Gray and Hughes, 2001). A delay in decision making may obstruct the progress of subsequent construction activities and that may eventually delay the entire project progress. Obstinate nature of Employer: A building project is the result of the combined efforts of the professionals. They have to work at the various interfaces of a project (Wang, 2000; Arain et al., 2004). If the Employer is obstinate, he may not accommodate other creative and beneficial ideas. Eventually, this may cause major Variations in the later stages and affect the project negatively. Change in specifications by owner: Changes in specifications are frequent in construction projects with inadequate project objectives (OBrien, 1998). In a multi-player environment like any construction project, change in specifications by the Employer during the construction phase may require major Variations and adjustments in project planning and procurement activities. B. Consultant Related Variations This section discusses the causes of Variations that were initiated by the consultant. In some cases, the consultant directly initiates Variations or the Variations are required because the consultant fails to fulfil certain requirements for carrying out the project. Change in design by Consultants: Change in design for improvement by the Consultant is a norm in contemporary professional practice (Arain et al., 2004). The changes in design are frequent in projects where construction starts before the design is finalized (Fisk, 1997). Design changes can affect a project adversely depending on the timing of the occurrence of the changes. Errors and omissions in design: Errors and omissions in design are an important cause of project to delays (Arain et al., 2004). Design errors and omissions may lead to loss of productivity and delay in project schedule (Assaf et al., 1995). Hence, errors and omissions in design can affect a project adversely depending on the timing of the occurrence of the errors. Conflicts between contract documents: Conflict between contract documents can result in misinterpretation of the actual requirement of a project (CII, 1986a). To convey complete project scope for participants, the contract documents must be clear and straight to the point. Insufficient details in contract documents may adversely affect the project, leading to delay in project completion. Inadequate scope of work for contractor: In a multi-player environment like construction, the scope of work for all the players must be clear and without uncertainty for successful project completion (Fisk, 1997; Arain et al., 2004). Inadequate scope of work for the contractor can cause major Variations that may negatively affect the project, and leads to changes in construction planning. Technology change: Technology change is a potential cause of Variations in a project. Project planning should be flexible for accommodating new beneficial Variations (CII, 1994b). This is because the new technology can be beneficial in the project life cycle, for instance, reducing maintenance cost of the project. Or new methods of constructions that reduce construction cost. Value engineering: Value engineering should ideally be carried out during the design phase (DellIsola, 1982). During the construction phase, value engineering can be a costly exercise, as Variation in any design element would initiate and leads to Variations to other relevant design components (Mokhtar et al., 2000). Lack of coordination: A lack of coordination between parties may cause major variations that could eventually impact the project adversely (Arain et al., 2004). Unfavourable Variations, which affect the projects negatively, can usually be managed at an early stage by paying extra focus in coordination. Design complexity: Complex designs require unique skills and construction methods (Arain et al., 2004). Complexity affects the flow of construction activities, whereas simple and linear construction works are relatively easy to handle (Fisk, 1997). Hence, complexity may cause major Variations in construction projects. Inadequate working drawing details: To convey a complete concept of the project design, the working drawings must be clear and concise (Geok, 2002). Insufficient working drawing details can result in misinterpretation of the actual requirement of a project (Arain et al., 2004). Thorough reviewing of design details would assist in minimizing Variations. Inadequate shop drawing details: Shop drawings are usually developed for construction work details for site professionals (Cox and Hamilton, 1995). As mentioned earlier with regard to working drawing details, likewise, inadequacy of shop drawing details can be a potential cause of Variations in the construction projects. Consultants lack of judgment and experience: Professional experience and judgment is an important factor for a successful completion of a building project (Clough and Sears, 1994; OBrien, 1998). The lack of professional experience increases the risk of errors in design as well as during construction. Eventually, this may affect the project quality and delay the project completion. Lack of consultants knowledge of available materials and equipment: Knowledge of available materials and equipment is an important factor for developing a comprehensive design (Geok, 2002). In the construction industry where material standardization is not common, the consultants lack of knowledge of available materials and equipment can cause numerous major Variations during various project phases. Honest wrong beliefs of consultant: Honest wrong beliefs may cause construction professionals to contribute poor value add in projects (Arain, 2002; Arain et al., 2004). Consultants, without having firsthand knowledge, may make decisions based on their wrong beliefs which would adversely affect the pace of the project. Consultants lack of required data: A lack of data can result in misinterpretation of the actual requirements of a project (Assaf et al., 1995; Arain, 2002). When there is insufficient data, consultants are prone to develop designs based on their own perceptions, which may not be what the Employer wants. Eventually, this may cause major Variations and affect the project negatively. Obstinate nature of consultant: In a multi-player environment like construction, the professionals have to work as team at the various interfaces of a project (Wang, 2000; Arain et al., 2004). If the consultant is obstinate, he may not accommodate other creative and beneficial ideas. Eventually, this may cause major Variations in the later stages and affect the project negatively. Ambiguous design details: A clearer design tends to be comprehended more readily (OBrien, 1998). Ambiguity or Doubtfulness or uncertainty in design is a potential cause of Variations in a project. This is because ambiguity in design can be misinterpreted by project participants, leading to rework and delay in the project completion. Eventually, this may affect the project progress negatively. Design discrepancies (inadequate design): Inadequate design can be a frequent cause of Variations in construction projects (CII, 1990a; Fisk, 1997). Design discrepancies affect the project functionality and quality. Eventually, this can affect a project adversely depending on the timing of the occurrence of the Variations. Noncompliance of design with government regulations: Noncompliance of design with government regulations or policies would cost the project difficult to execute (Clough and Sears, 1994). Noncompliance with government regulations may affect the project safety and progress negatively, leading to serious accidents and delays in the project completion. Noncompliance of design with owners requirements: A comprehensive design is one that accommodates the owners requirements (Cox and Hamilton, 1995). A noncompliance design with the owners requirements is considered an inadequate design (Fisk, 1997). Eventually, this may cause Variations for accommodating the Employers requirements. This may affect the project adversely during the construction phase. Change in specifications by consultant: Changes in specifications are frequent in construction projects with inadequate project objectives (OBrien, 1998). As mentioned earlier with respect to changes in specifications by the Employer, this is also a potential cause of Variations in a project, leading to reworks and delays in the project completion. C. Contractor Related Variations This section discusses the causes of Variations that were related to the Contractor. In some cases, the contractor may suggest Variations to the project, or the Variations may be required because the contractor fails to fulfil certain requirements for carrying out the project. Lack of Contractors involvement in design: Involvement of the Contractor in the design may assist in developing better designs by accommodating his creative and practical ideas (Arain et al., 2004). Lack of Contractors involvement in design may eventually cause Variations. Practical ideas which are not accommodated during the design phase will eventually affect the project negatively. Unavailability of equipment: Unavailability of equipment is a procurement problem that can affect the project completion (OBrien, 1998). Occasionally, the lack of equipment may cause major design Variations or adjustments to project scheduling to accommodate the replacement. Unavailability of skills (shortage of skilled manpower): Skilled manpower is one of the major resources required for complex technological projects (Arain et al., 2004). Shortage of skilled manpower is more likely to occur in complex technological projects. This lack can be a cause for Variations that may delay the projects completion date. Contractors financial difficulties: Construction is a labour intensive industry. Whether the Contractor has been paid or not, the wages of the worker must still be paid (Thomas and Napolitan, 1994). Contractors financial difficulties may cause major Variations during a project, affecting its quality and progress and in some cases even the safety of the site is affected if there is an argument. Contractors desired profitability: Contractors desired profitability can be a potential cause of Variations in construction projects. This is because Variations are considered a common source of additional works for the contractor (OBrien, 1998). The Contractor may eventually strive to convince the project Employer to allow certain Variations, leading to additional financial benefits for him. Differing site conditions: Differing site condition can be an important cause of delays in large building projects (Assaf et al., 1995). The contractor may face different soil conditions than those indicated in the tender documents. Eventually this may affect his cost estimates and schedule negatively. Defective workmanship: Defective workmanship may lead to demolition and rework in construction projects (Fisk, 1997; OBrien, 1998). Defective workmanship results in low quality in construction projects (Arain et al., 2004). Even the Contractor bares the cost of the defective work, but this also may affect the project negatively, leading to rework and delay in the project completion. Unfamiliarity with local conditions: Familiarity with local conditions is an important factor for the successful completion of a construction project (Clough and Sears, 1994). If the Contractor is not aware of local conditions, it would be extremely difficult for him to carry out the project. Eventually, project delays may occur that end up with vital Variations in the entire design entity. Lack of a specialized construction manager: The construction manager carries out the construction phase in an organized way to eliminate the risks of delays and other problems. Lack of a specialized construction manager may lead to defective workmanship and delay in the construction project. Fast track construction: Fast track construction requires an organized system to concurrently carry out interdependent project activities (Fisk, 1997). When the public and private sectors have large funds and want to complete projects in a very short time, complete construction drawings and specifications may not be available when the contractor starts work (Arain et al., 2004).Eventually, this procurement mode may cause major Variations. Poor procurement process: Procurement delays have various negative effects on other processes in the construction cycle (Fisk, 1997). Occasionally, the procurement delay may cause an entire change or replacement for originally specified materials or equipment for the project (Arain et al., 2004). This may therefore cause a need for project activities to be reworked. Lack of communication: Detrimental Variations, which affect the projects adversely, can usually be managed at an early stage with strong and incessant communication. A lack of coordination and communication between parties may cause major Variations that could eventually impact the project negatively (Arain et al., 2004). Contractors lack of judgment and experience: The consultants lack of professional experience increases the risk of errors during construction (OBrien, 1998). This lack may cause major construction Variations in a project, when both Contractor and consultant could not identify or foresee the problems in the planning stage due to both parties are lacking of experience. Eventually, this may affect the project quality and delay the project completion. Long lead procurement: Procurement delays have various adverse affects on other processes in the construction cycle (Fisk, 1997). Occasionally, the procurement delay may cause an entire change or replacement for originally specified materials or equipment for the project. Delay in long lead procurement is a common cause of delays in building projects (Assaf et al., 1995). Honest wrong beliefs of contractor: As mentioned earlier with respect to honest wrong beliefs of the consultant, honest wrong beliefs of the contractor can also be a potential cause of Variations in construction projects. Contractors, without having firsthand knowledge, may make decisions based on their wrong beliefs which would adversely affect the quality and pace of the project. Complex design and technology: Complex design and technology require detailed interpretations by the designer to make it comprehensible for the Contractor (Arain, 2002). A complex design may be experienced for the first time by the Contractor. Eventually, the complexity may affect the flow of construction activities, leading to delays in the project completion. Lack of strategic planning: Proper strategic planning is an important factor for successful completion of a building project (Clough and Sears, 1994; CII, 1994a). The lack of strategic planning is a common cause of Variations in projects where construction starts before the design is finalized, for instance, in concurrent design and construction contracts (OBrien, 1998). Contractors lack of required data: A lack of required data may affect the contractors strategic planning for successful project completion, leading to frequent disruptions during the construction process. This is because a lack of data can result in misinterpretation of the actual requirements of a project (Assaf et al., 1995; Arain et al., 2004). Contractors obstinate nature: As mentioned earlier with regard to the obstinate nature of consultant, likewise, this can be a potential cause of Variations in construction projects. If the Contractor is obstinate, he may not accommodate creative and beneficial ideas suggested by others. Eventually, this may cause major Variations in the later stages and affect the project negatively. D. Other Variations This section discusses the causes of Variations that were not directly related to the project team. Weather conditions: Adverse weather conditions can affect outside activities in construction projects (Fisk, 1997; OBrien, 1998). When weather conditions vary such as the various monsoon seasons in Malaysia, the contractor needs to adjust the construction schedule accordingly. Occasionally, this may affect the project progress negatively, leading to delays in construction. Safety considerations: Safety is an important factor for the successful completion of a building project (Clough and Sears, 1994). Noncompliance with safety requirements may cause major Variations in design. Lack of safety considerations may affect the project progress negatively, leading to serious accidents and delays in the project completion. Change in government regulations: Local authorities may have specific codes and regulations that need to be accommodated in the design (Arain et al., 2004). Change in government regulations during the project construction phase may cause major Variations in design and construction. This can affect a project negatively depending on the timing of the occurrence of the changes. Change in economic conditions: Economic conditions are one of the influential factors that may affect a construction project (Fisk, 1997). The economic situation of a country can affect the whole construction industry and its participants. Eventually, this may affect the project negatively, depending on the timing of the occurrence of the Variations. Socio-cultural factors: Professionals with different socio-cultural backgrounds may encounter problems due to different perceptions, and this may affect the working environment of the construction project (Arain et al., 2004). Lack of coordination is common between professionals with different socio-cultural backgrounds (OBrien, 1998). Eventually, project delays may occur that end up with vital changes in the entire project team. Unforeseen problems: Unforeseen conditions are usually faced by professionals in the construction industry (Clough and Sears, 1994; OBrien, 1998). If these conditions are not solved as soon as possible, they may cause major Variations in the construction projects. Eventually, this may affect the project negatively, leading to reworks and delays in the project completion. The Effects of Variation As stated in Max Abrahams in his book Engineering Law and the ICE Contracts, most of the employment given to the legal profession on engineering work is to do with disputes about Variations. Most significant number of claims emerged are from Variations, and that the Variation clause exists mainly is to protect the client/employer. If the majority claims by the contractors and the greatest problem in contract management are both caused by Variation, then either the variation must be reduced or eliminated, or a better legal and practical framework must be created so that they can be solve with more effectively. The simple answer to this is to be able to avoid use the of variation clause in the contract.. However, if a contract does not provide such clauses, the client may find himself unable to do something and accepting an unsatisfied product because he could not change what he now wants, although in return for great certainty with regard to price and possibly time. The existence of a variation clause improves the potential for securing and improving end product, but with a price, for the client then have less certainty about the price to be paid and the time for completion. In addition it to be said that the existence of Variation clause itself will also generate Variations cost, because the complete design at tender stage can be avoided. The extend to which completed design is to avoided at the tender state and extend to which the client has not secured a fixed price is generally considerable. Consider for instance, the parts of building project which are consider being variable in any event: Prime cost sums Provisional sum Provisional quantities Contingencies Day works Fluctuations Therefore, it is rare that a building contract sum is fixed. It is considered unwise that the contract should not contains Variation clauses because the consequence of inability to change the works as a right would, inevitably, lead on occasion to waste of resources. Some contracts do not contain Variation clauses, and such contract is very common in North America. This does not mean the Variation would not arise, only that the client has no contractual rights to vary the works. What we need is not about eliminating the Variation clauses, but to have better defined clauses. An inefficiently defined variation clauses can be easily identified, as variation occurs more often in works of alteration than on new works yet the system if control is not better; the same clauses are frequently used notwithstanding the fact that variations can to a great extent be reasonably anticipated on works of refurbishment or alteration. An improved legal framework and system of control must be also being willingness on the part of the professionals to use the variation clauses as intended and not to abuse it. Abuse can occur for various reasons: Where a clause is implemented because the scheme was not ful